La mente estesa ma individuata: una prospettiva simbiotica
Abstract
Riassunto: Nell’ambito delle associazioni simbiotiche ha acquisito credito crescente la cosiddetta prospettiva “olobiontica”, secondo cui animali e piante non dovrebbero più essere considerati entità autonome, con confini chiaramente delimitati, ma li si dovrebbe vedere come unità funzionali che consistono di reti inter-relazionali tra specie diverse. In quest’ottica le funzioni precedentemente attribuite a un singolo componente devono essere riviste alla luce della prospettiva relazionale e considerate quindi come prodotto di un’unità funzionale, ossia dell’olobionte. Nella prospettiva funzionalista, il noto concetto di mente estesa considera la possibilità per cui il veicolo della cognizione possa andare oltre il cervello e anche oltre i limiti del corpo, mediante dispositivi artificiali. Questo lavoro intende offrire una variante della teoria della mente estesa intesa non solo come possibilità teoretica ma anche come ipotesi compatibile con alcuni recenti sviluppi nella ricerca biologica e biomedica. Si sosterrà quindi che l’attività del microbiota umano (i batteri che vivono in associazione con le specie umane) svolgono un ruolo funzionale nella regolazione dei nostri processi cognitivi, suggerendo che il microbiota costituisce un’estensione funzionale del sistema cognitivo precedentemente descritto come “umano”. La revisione e l’estensione dell’individuo biologico in favore dell’olobionte come unità funzionale (il vero creatore delle funzioni cognitive) porta anche alla necessità di aggiornare i confini dell’individuo come agente cognitivo.
Parole chiave: Microbiota; Cognizione estesa; Olobionte; Simbiosi; Funzionalismo
The individuated extended mind: A symbiotic perspective
Abstract: In the framework of symbiotic associations, the so-called “holobiontic” perspective has increasingly emerged, according to which animals and plants should no longer be considered as autonomous entities, delimited by clear boundaries, but should rather be seen as functional units, consisting of inter-relational networks of different species. From this perspective, the functions that were previously ascribed to a single component, must be updated in the light of this relational perspective and rather judged as a product of the functional unit, that is, the holobiont. In a functionalist perspective, the famous conception of the extended mind investigates the hypothesis that the vehicle of cognition can extend not only outside the brain but also beyond the limits of the body, through artificial devices. The present work aims to offer a variant of the extended theory of mind not only as a theoretical possibility but also in accordance with some recent developments in biological and biomedical research. It will therefore be argued that the activity of the human microbiota (bacteria living in associations with the human species) plays a functional role in the regulation of our cognitive processes suggesting that the microbiota constitutes a functional extension of the cognitive system previously described as “human”. The revision and extension of the biological individual in favor of the holobiont as a functional unit (therefore the true creator of cognitive functions) also leads to the need to update the boundaries of the individual as a cognitive agent.
Keywords: Microbiota; Extended Cognition; Holobiont; Symbiosis; Functionalism
Parole chiave
Full Text
PDFRiferimenti bibliografici
ADAMS, F., AIZAWA, K. (2001). The bounds of cognition. In: «Philosophical Psychology», vol. XIV, n. 1, pp. 43-64.
AGUSTÍ, A., GARCÍA-PARDO, M.P., LÓPEZ-ALMELA, I., CAMPILLO, I., MAES, M., ROMANÍ-PÉREZ, M., SANZ, Y. (2018). Interplay between the gut-brain axis, obesity and cognitive function. In: «Frontiers in Neuroscience», vol. XII, Art. Nr. 155 – doi: 10.3389/fnins.2018.00155.
AL OMRAN, Y., AZIZ, Q. (2014). The brain-gut axis in health and disease. In: M. LYTE, J.F. CYRAN (eds.), Microbial endocrinology: The microbiota-gut-brain-axis in health and disease, Springer, Berlin, pp. 135-153.
AMEDEI, A., BOEM, F. (2018). I’ve gut a feeling: Microbiota impacting the conceptual and experimental perspectives of personalized medicine. In: «International Journal of Molecular Sciences», vol. XIX, n. 12, Art. Nr. 3756 – doi: 10.3390/ijms19123756.
BELKAID, Y., HAND, T.W. (2014). Role of the microbiota in immunity and inflammation. In: «Cell», vol. CLVII, n. 1, pp. 121-141.
BERCIK, P., DENOU, E., COLLINS, J., JACKSON, W., LU, J., JURY, J., DENG, Y., BLENNERHASSETT, P., MACRI, J., MCCOY, K.D., VERDU, E.F., COLLINS, S.M. (2011). The intestinal microbiota affects central levels of brain-derived neurotropic factor and behavior in mice. In: «Gastroenterology», vol. CXLI n. 2, pp. 599-609
BOEM, F., NANNINI, G., AMEDEI, A. (2020). Not just “immunity”: How the microbiota can reshape our approach to cancer immunotherapy. In: «Immuno-therapy», vol. XII, n. 6, 2020, pp. 407-416.
BORDENSTEIN, S.R., THEIS, K.R. (2015). Host biology in light of the microbiome: Ten principles of holobionts and hologenomes. In: «PLoS Biology», vol. XIII, n. 8, Art. Nr. e1002226 – doi: 10.1371/ jour-nal.pbio.1002226.
BRAVO, J.A., FORSYTHE, P., CHEW, M.V., ESCARAVAGE, E., SAVIGNAC, H.M., DINAN, T.G., BIENENSTOCK, J., CRYAN, J.F. (2011). Ingestion of Lactobacillus strain regulates emotional behavior and central GABA receptor expression in a mouse via the vagus nerve. In: «Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America», vol. CVIII, n. 38, pp. 16050-16055.
BROOKS, A.W., KOHL, K.D., BRUCKER, R.M., VAN OPSTAL, E.J., BORDENSTEIN, S.R. (2016). Phylosymbiosis: Relationships and functional effects of microbial communities across host evolutionary history. In: «PLoS Biology», vol. XIV, n. 11, Art. Nr. e2000225 – doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2000225.
BROOKS, A.W., KOHL, K.D., BRUCKER, R.M., VAN OPSTAL, E.J., BORDENSTEIN, S.R. (2017). Correction: Phylosymbiosis: Relationships and functional effects of microbial communities across host evolutionary history. In: «PLoS Biology», vol. XV, n. 1, Art. Nr. e1002587 – doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.1002587.
CALVANI, R., PICCA, A., LO MONACO, M.R., LANDI, F., BERNABEI, R., MARZETTI, E. (2018). Of microbes and minds: A narrative review on the second brain aging. In: «Frontiers in Medicine», vol. V, Art. Nr. 53 – doi: 10.3389/fmed.2018.00053
CARABOTTI, M., SCIROCCO, A., MASELLI, M.A., SEVERI, C. (2015). The gut-brain axis: Interactions between enteric microbiota, central and enteric nervous systems. In: «Annals of Gastroenterology: Quarterly Publication of the Hellenic Society of Gastroenterology», vol. XXVIII, n. 2, pp. 203-209.
CARTER, J.A., CLARK, A., KALLESTRUP, J., PALERMOS, S.O., PRITCHARD, D. (2018). Extended epistemology, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
CAZETTES, F., COHEN, J.I., YAU, P.L., TALBOT, H., CONVIT, A. (2011). Obesity-mediated inflammation may damage the brain circuit that regulates food intake. In: «Brain Research», vol. MCCCLXXIII, pp. 101-109.
CHEVALIER, G., SIOPI, E., GUENIN-MACÉ, L., PASCAL, M., LAVAL, T., RIFFLET, A., GOMPERTS BONECA, I., DEMANGEL, C., COLSCH, B., PRUVOST, A., CHU-VAN, E., MESSAGER, A., LEULIER, F., LEPOUSEZ, G., EBERL, G., LLEDO, P.M. (2020). Effect of gut microbiota on depressive-like behaviors in mice is mediated by the endocannabinoid system. In: «Nature Communication», vol. XI, Art. Nr, 6363 – doi: 10.1038/s41467-020-19931-2.
CLARK, A. (2010). Coupling, constitution and the cognitive kind: A reply to Adams and Aizawa. In: R. MENARY (ed.), The extended mind, MIT Press, Cambridge (MA), pp. 81-99.
CLARK, A. (2010). Supersizing the mind: Embodiment, action, and cognitive extension, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
CLARK, A., CHALMERS, D.J. (1998). The extended mind. In: «Analysis», vol. LVIII, n. 1, pp. 7-19.
CORLISS, J.O., MARGULIS, L. (1972). Origin of eukaryotic cells. In: «Transactions of the American Microscopical Society», vol. XCI, n. 3 - doi: 10.2307/3224888.
CUMMINGS, J.L., BARRITT, C.F., HORAN, M. (1986). Delusions induced by procaine penicillin: Case report and review of the syndrome. In: «International Journal of Psychiatry in Medicine», vol. XVI, n. 2, pp. 163-168.
DAMASIO, A.R. (1994). Descartes’ error. Emotion, reason, and the human brain, Putnam, New York.
DINAN, T.G., CRYAN, J.F. (2017). Gut instincts: Microbiota as a key regulator of brain development, ageing and neurodegeneration. In: «The Journal of Physiology», vol. DXCV, n. 2, pp. 489-503.
EBERL, G. (2010). A new vision of immunity: Homeostasis of the superorganism. In: «Mucosal Immunology», vol. III, n. 5, pp. 450-460.
FETISSOV, S.O. (2017). Role of the gut microbiota in host appetite control: Bacterial growth to animal feeding behaviour. In: «Nature Reviews Endocrinology», vol. XIII, n. 1, pp. 11-25.
FINEGOLD, S.M. (2011). Desulfovibrio species are potentially important in regressive autism. In: «Medical Hypotheses», vol. LXXVII, n. 2, pp. 270-274;
FORSYTHE, P., BIENENSTOCK, J, KUNZE, W.A. (2014). Vagal pathways for microbiome-brain-gut axis communication. In: M. LYTE, J.F. CYRAN (eds.), Microbial endocrinology: The microbiota-gut-brain-axis in health and disease, Springer, Berlin, pp. 115-133.
FORSYTHE, P., KUNZE, W.A. (2013). Voices from within: Gut microbes and the CNS. In: «Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences», vol. LXX, n. 1, pp. 55-69.
FOSTER, J.A., MCVEY NEUFELD, K.-A. (2013). Gut-brain axis: How the microbiome influences anxiety and depression. In: «Trends in Neurosciences», vol. XXXVI, n. 5, pp. 305-312.
FOSTER, J.A., RINAMAN, L., CRYAN, J.F. (2017). Stress & the gut-brain axis: Regulation by the microbiome. In: «Neurobiology of Stress», vol. VII, n. 7, p. 124-136.
FROST, G., SLEETH, M.L., SAHURI-ARISOYLU, M., LIZ-ARBE, B., CERDAN, S., BRODY, L., ANASTASOVSKA, J., GHOURAB, S., HANKIR, M., ZHANG, S., CARLING, D., SWANN, S.R., GIBSON, G., VIARDOT, A., MORRISON, D., THOMAS, E.L., BELL, J.D. (2014). The short-chain fatty acid acetate reduces appetite via a central homeostatic mechanism. In: «Nature Communications», vol. V, n. 1 – doi: 10.1038/ncomms4611.
GALLAGHER, S. (2018). The extended mind: State of the question, in: «The Southern Journal of Philosophy», vol. LVI, n. 4, 2018, pp. 421-447.
GAREAU, M.G., WINE, E., RODRIGUES, D.M., CHO, J.H., WHARY, M.T., PHILPOTT, D.J., MACQUEEN, G., SHERMAN, P.M. (2011). Bacterial infection causes stress-induced memory dysfunction in mice. In: «Gut», vol. LX, n. 3, pp. 307-317.
GILBERT, G.A., BLASER, M.J., CAPORASO, J.G., JANSSON, J.K., LYNCH, S.V., KNIGHT, R. (2018). Current understanding of the human microbiome. In: «Nature Medicine», vol. XXIV, n. 4, pp. 392-400.
GILBERT, S.F. (2019). Developmental symbiosis facilitates the multiple origins of herbivory. In: «Evolution and Development», Art. Nr. e12291 – doi: 10.1111/ede.12291.
GILBERT, S.F., SAPP, J., TAUBER, A.I. (2019). A symbiotic view of life: We have never been individuals. In: «The Quarterly Review of Biology», vol. LXXXVII, n. 4, pp. 325-341.
GÓRA, B., GOFRON, Z., GROSIAK, M., APTEKORZ, M., KAZEK, B., KOCELAK, P., RADOSZ-KOMONIEWSKA, H., CHUDEK, J., MARTIROSIAN, G. (2018). Toxin pro-file of fecal Clostridium perfringens strains isolated from children with autism spectrum disorders. In: «Anaerobe», vol. LI, pp. 73-77.
GRENHAM, S., CLARKE, G., CRYAN, J.F., DINAN, T.G. (2011). Brain-gut-microbe communication in health and disease. In: «Frontiers in Physiology», vol. II, Art. Nr. 94 – doi: doi: 10.3389/fphys.2011.00094.
GUERRERO, R., MARGULIS, L., BERLANGA, M. (2013). Symbiogenesis: The holobiont as a unit of evolution. In: «International Microbiology», vol. XVI, n. 3, pp. 133-143.
HANAGE, W.P. (2014). Microbiology: Microbiome science needs a healthy dose of scepticism. In: «Nature News», vol. DXII, n. 7514, p. 247-248.
HOBAN, A.E., STILLING, R.M., MOLONEY, G., SHANAHAN, F., DINAN, T.G., CLARKE, G., CRYAN, J.F. (2018). The microbiome regulates amygdala-dependent fear recall. In: «Molecular Psychiatry», XXIII, n. 5, pp. 1134-1144.
HOOKS, K.B., KONSMAN, J.P., O’MALLEY, M.A. (2018). Microbiota-gut-brain research: A critical analysis. In: «Behavioral and Brain Sciences», vol. XLII, Art.Nr. e60 – doi: 10.1017/S0140525X18002133.
HOULDEN, A., GOLDRICK, M., BROUGH, D., VIZI, ES, LÉNÁRT, N., MARTINECZ, B., ROBERTS, I.S., DENES, A. (2016). Brain injury induces specific changes in the caecal microbiota of mice via altered autonomic activity and mucoprotein production. In: «Brain, Behavior and Immunity», vol. LVII, pp. 10-20 – doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2016.04.003
JIANG, C., LI, G., HUANG, P., LIU, Z., ZHAO, B. (2017). The gut microbiota and Alzheimer’s disease. In: «Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease», vol. LVIII, n. 1, pp. 1-15.
JOHNSON, K.V.A., FOSTER, K.R. (2018). Why does the microbiome affect behaviour?. In: «Nature Reviews Microbiology», vol. XVI, pp. 647-655 – doi: 10.1038/s41579-018-0014-3.
KASS, J.S., SHANDERA, W.X. (2010). Nervous system effects of antituberculosis therapy. In: «CNS Drugs», vol. XXIV, n. 8, pp. 655-667.
KELLY, J.R., MINUTO, C., CRYAN, J.F., CLARKE, G., DI-NAN, T.G. (2017). Cross talk: The microbiota and neurodevelopmental disorders. In: «Frontiers in Neuroscience», vol. XI, Art. Nr. 490 - doi: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00490.
KLASSEN, J.L. (2019). Ecology helps bound causal explanations in microbiology. In: «Biology and Philosophy», vol. XXXV, n. 1, Art. Nr. 3 – doi: 10.1007/s10539-019-9728-5.
LEAN, C.H. (2019). Can communities cause?. In: «Biology and Philosophy», vol. XXXIV, n. 6, Art. Nr. 59 – doi: 10.1007/s10539-019-9715-x.
LI, X.-J., YOU, X., WANG, C., LI, X., SHENG, Y., ZHUANG, P., ZHANG, Y. (2020). Bidirectional brain-gut-microbiota axis in increased intestinal permeability induced by central nervous system injury. In: «CNS Neuroscience and Therapeutics», vol. XXVI, n. 8, pp. 783-790.
LOZUPONE, C.A., STOMBAUGH, J.I., GORDON, J.I., JANSSON, J.K., KNIGHT, R. (2012). Diversity, stability and resilience of the human gut microbiota. In: «Nature», vol. CDLXXXIX, n. 7415, pp. 220-230.
LYNCH, K.E., PARKE, E.C., O’MALLEY, M.A. (2019). How causal are microbiomes? A comparison with the Helicobacter pylori explanation of ulcers. In: «Biology and Philosophy», vol. XXXIV, n. 6, Art. Nr. 62 - 10.1007/s10539-019-9702-2
LYTE, M., CRYAN, J.F. (eds.) (2014), Microbial endocrinology: The microbiota-gut-brain axis in health and disease, Springer, Berlin/New York 2014.
MARGULIS, L. (ed.) (1991), Symbiosis as a source of evolutionary innovation: Speciation and morphogenesis, MIT Press, Cambridge (MA).
MARSH, L. (2010). Introduction. In: «Cognitive Systems Research», vol. XI, n. 4, pp. 311-312.
MAYER, E.A., SAVIDGE, T., SHULMAN, R.J. (2014). Brain gut microbiome interactions and functional bowel disorders. In: «Gastroenterology», vol. CXLVI, n. 6, pp. 1500-1512.
MCCUE, J.D., ZANDT, J.R. (1991). Acute psychoses associated with the use of ciprofloxacin and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole. In: «The American Journal of Medicine», vol. XC, n. 4, pp. 528-529.
MENARY, R. (ed.) (2010). The extended mind, MIT Press, Cambridge (MA).
NEUFELD, K.M., KANG, N., BIENENSTOCK, J., FOSTER, J.A. (2011). Reduced anxiety-like behavior and central neurochemical change in germ-free mice. In: «Neurogastroenterology and Motility», vol. XXIII, n. 3, pp. 255-264.
NICCOLAI, E., BOEM, F., RUSSO, E., & AMEDEI, A. (2019). The gut-brain axis in the neuropsychological disease model of obesity: A classical movie revised by the emerging director “microbiome”. In: «Nutrients», vol. XI, n. 1, Art. Nr. 156 – doi: 10.3390/nu11010156.
OATLEY, K., JOHNSON-LAIRD, P.N. (2014). Cognitive approaches to emotions. In: «Trends in Cognitive Sciences», vol. XVIII, n. 3, pp. 134-140.
OKON-SINGER, H., HENDLER, T., PESSOA, L., SHACK-MAN, A.J. (2015). The neurobiology of emotion-cognition interactions: Fundamental questions and strategies for future research. In: «Frontiers in Human Neuroscience», vol. IX, Art. Nr. 58 – doi: 10.3389/fnhum.2015.00058.
ONGÜR, D., PRICE, J.L. (2000). The organization of networks within the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex of rats, monkeys and humans. In: «Cerebral Cortex», vol. X, n. 3, pp. 206-219.
PENNISI, E. (2020). Meet the psychobiome. In: «Science», vol. CCCLXVIII, n. 6491, pp. 570-573.
PEREZ-BURGOS, A., MAO, Y.-K., BIENENSTOCK, J., KUNZE, W.A. (2014). The gut-brain axis rewired: Adding a functional vagal nicotinic “sensory synapse”. In: «FASEB», vol. XXVIII, n. 7, pp. 3064-3074.
PESSOA, L. (2008). On the relationship between emotion and cognition. In: «Nature Reviews Neuroscience», vol. IX, n. 2, pp. 148-158.
PICCININI, G. (2004). Functionalism, computationalism, and mental states. In: «Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science», vol. XXXV, n. 4, pp. 811-833.
PRADEU, T. (2016). Organisms or biological individuals? Combining physiological and evolutionary individuality. In: «Biology and Philosophy», vol. XXXI, n. 6, pp. 797-817.
PRADEU, T., VITANZA, E. (2012). The limits of the self: Immunology and biological identity, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
PRINZ, J.J. (2006). Gut reactions: A perceptual theory of emotion, Oxford University Press, Oxford.
PUTNAM, H. (1960). Minds and machines. In: S. HOOK (ed.), Dimension of mind, New York University Press, New York, pp. 138-164.
PUTNAM, H. (1973). The nature of mental states. In: W.H. CAPITAN, D.D. MERRILL (eds.), Art, mind, and religion, Pittsburgh University Press, Pittsburg, pp. 37-48.
QIN, J., LI, R., RAES, J., ARUMUGAM, M., BURGDORF, K.S., MANICHANH, C. , NIELESEN, T., PONS, N., LEVENEZ, F., YAMADA, Y., MENDE, D.R., LI, J., XU, J., LI, S., LI, D., CAO, J., WANG, B., LIANG, H., ZHENG, H., XIE, Y., TAP, J., LEPAGE, P., BERTALAN, M., BATTO, J.-M., HANSEN, T., LEPASLIER, D., LINNEBERG, A., NIELSEN, H.B., PELLETIER, E., RENAULT, P., SICHERITZ-PONTEN, T., TURNER, K., ZHU, H., YU, C., LI, S., JIAN, M., ZHOU, Y., LI, Y., ZHANG, X., LI, S., QIN, N., YANG, H., WANG, Y., BRUNAK, S., DORÉ, J., GUARNER, F., KRISTIANSEN, K., PEDERSEN, O., PARKHILL, J., WEISSENBACH, J., METAHIT CONSORTIUM, BORK, P., EHRLICH, S.D., WANG, J. (2010). A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. In: «Nature», vol. CDLXIV, n. 7285, pp. 59-65.
REES, T., BOSCH, T., DOUGLAS, A.E. (2018). How the microbiome challenges our concept of self. In: «PLOS Biology», vol. XVI, n. 2, Art. Nr. E2005358 – doi: 10.1371/journal.pbio.2005358.
RHEE, S.H., POTHOULAKIS, C., MAYER, E.A. (2009). Principles and clinical implications of the brain-gut-enteric microbiota axis. In: «Nature Reviews Gastroenterology and Hepatology», vol. VI, n. 5, pp. 306-314.
ROGER, A.J., MUÑOZ-GÓMEZ, S.A., KAMIKAWA, R. (2017). The origin and diversification of mitochondria. In: «Current Biology», vol. XXVII, n. 21, pp. R1177-R1192.
RONAI, I., GRESLEHNER, G.P., BOEM, F., CARLISLE, J., STENCEL, A., SUÁREZ, J., BAYIR, S., BRETTING, W., FORMOSINHO, J., GUERRERO, A.C., MORGAN, W.H., PRIGOT-MAURICE, C., RODEK, S., VASSE, M., WALLIS, J.M., ZACKS, O. (2020). Microbiota, symbiosis and individuality summer school” meeting report. In: «Microbiome», vol. VIII, n. 1, Art. Nr. 117 – doi: 10.1186/s40168-020-00898-7.
ROOK, G., BÄCKHED, F., LEVIN, B.R., MCFALL-NGAI, M.J., MCLEAN, A.R. (2017). Evolution, human-microbe interactions, and life history plasticity. In: «The Lancet», vol. CCCXC, n. 10093, pp. 521-530.
RUPERT, R.D. (2004). Challenges to the hypothesis of extended cognition. In: «The Journal of Philosophy», vol. CI, n. 8, pp. 389-428.
SARKAR, A., HARTY, S., LEHTO, S.M., MOELLER, A.H., DINAN, T.G., DUNBAR, R.I.M., CYRAN, J.F., BURNET, P.W.J. (2018). The microbiome in psychology and cognitive neuroscience. In: «Trends in Cognitive Sciences», vol. XXII, n. 7, pp. 611-636.
SARKAR, A., LEHTO, S.M., HARTY, S., DINAN, T.G., CRYAN, J.F., BURNET, P.W.J. (2016). Psychobiotics and the manipulation of bacteria-gut-brain signals. In: «Trends in Neurosciences», vol. XXXIX, n. 11, pp. 763-781.
SCHEPERJANS, F., AHO, V., PEREIRA, P.A.B., KOSKINEN, K., PAULIN, L., PEKKONEN, E., AUVINEN, P. (2015). Gut microbiota are related to Parkinson’s disease and clinical phenotype. In: «Movement Disorders: Official Journal of the Movement Disorder Society», vol. XXX, n. 3, pp. 350-358.
SHARON, G., SAMPSON, T.R., GESCHWIND, D.H., MAZMANIAN, S.K. (2016). The central nervous system and the gut microbiome. In: «Cell», vol. CLXVII, n. 4, pp. 915-932.
SHERWIN, E., BORDENSTEIN, S.R., QUINN, J.L., DINAN, T.G., CRYAN, J.F. (2019). Microbiota and the social brain. In: «Science», vol. CCCLXVI, n. 6465, eaar2016 – doi: 10.1126/science.aar2016
SLYKERMAN, R.F., THOMPSON, J., WALDIE, K.E., MURPHY, R., WALL, C., MITCHELL, E.A. (2017). Antibiotics in the first year of life and subsequent neurocognitive outcomes. In: «Acta Paediatrica», vol. CVI, n. 1, pp. 87-94.
SON, J.S., ZHENG, L.J., ROWHEL, L.M., TIAN, X., ZHANG, Y. (2015). Comparison of fecal microbiota in children with Autism Spectrum Disorders and neurotypical siblings in the Simons Simplex Collection. In: «PLoS ONE», vol. X, n. 10, Art. Nr. e0137725 – doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0137725.
STORBECK, J., CLORE, G.L. (2007). On the interdependence of cognition and emotion. In: «Cognition and Emotion», vol. XXXI, n. 6, pp. 1212-1237.
STRANDWITZ, P., KIM, K.H., TEREKHOVA, D., LIU, J.K., SHARMA, A., LEVERING, J., MCDONALD, D., DIETRICH, D., RAMADHAR, T.R., LEKBUA, A., MROUE, N., LISTON, C., STEWART, E.J., DUBIN, M.J., ZENGLER, K., KNIGHT, R., GILBERT, J.A., CLARDY, J., LEWIS, K. (2019). GABA-modulating bacteria of the hu-man gut microbiota. In: «Nature Microbiology», vol. IV, n. 3, pp. 396-403.
SUÁREZ, J. (2018). The importance of symbiosis in philosophy of biology: An analysis of the current debate on biological individuality and its historical roots. In: «Symbiosis», vol. LXXII, n. 2, pp. 77-96.
SUAREZ, J., STENCEL, A. (2020). A part-dependent account of biological individuality: Why holobionts are individuals and ecosystems simultaneously. In: «Biological Reviews», vol. XCV, n. 5, 2020, pp. 1308-1324.
THE HUMAN MICROBIOME PROJECT CONSORTIUM (2012). Structure, function and diversity of the healthy human microbiome. In: «Nature», vol. CDLXXXVI, n. 7402, pp. 207-214.
TILLISCH, K., LABUS, J., KILPATRICK, L., JIANG, Z., STAINS, J., EBRAT, B., GUYONNET, D., LEGRAIN-RASPAUD, S., TROTIN, B., NALIBOFF, B., MAYER, E.A. (2013). Consumption of fermented milk product with probiotic modulates brain activity. In: «Gastroenterology», vol. CXLIV, n. 7, pp. 1394-1401.
TILLISCH, K., MAYER, E.A., GUPTA, A., GILL, Z., BRAZEILLES, R., LE NEVÉ, B., VAN HYLCKAMA VLIEG, J.E.T., GUYONNET, D., DERRIEN, M., LABUS, J.S. (2017). Brain structure and response to emotional stimuli as related to gut microbial profiles in healthy women. In: «Psychosomatic Medicine», vol. LXXIX, n. 8, pp. 905-913.
VALLES-COLOMER, M., FALONY, G., DARZI, Y., TIGCHELAAR, E.F., WANG, J., TITO, R.Y., SCHIWECK, C., KURILSHIKOV, A., JOOSSENS, M., WIJMENGA, C., CLAES, S., VANOUDENHOVE, L., ZHERNAKOVA, A., VIERIRA-SILVA, S., RAES, J. (2019). The neuroactive potential of the human gut microbiota in quality of life and depression. In: «Nature Microbiology», vol. IV, n. 4, pp. 623-632.
VAN BAALEN, M., HUNEMAN, P. (2014). Organisms as ecosystems/Ecosystems as organisms. In: «Biological Theory», vol. IX, n. 4, pp. 357-360.
WALF, A.A., FRYE, C.A. (2007). The use of the elevated plus maze as an assay of anxiety-related behavior in rodents. In: «Nature Protocols», vol. II, n. 2, pp. 322-328.
WANG, T., HU, X., LIANG, S., LI, W., WU, X., WANG, L., JIN, F. (2015). Lactobacillus fermentum NS9 restores the antibiotic induced physiological and psychological abnormalities in rats. In: «Beneficial Microbes», vol. VI, n. 5, pp. 707-717.
WILSON, R.A. (2014). Ten questions concerning extended cognition. In: «Philosophical Psychology», vol. XXVII, n. 1, pp. 19-33.
YANO, J.M., YU, K., DONALDSON, G.P., SHASTRI, G.G., ANN, P., MA, L., NAGLER, C.L., ISMAGILOV, R.F., MAZMANIAN, S.K., HSIAO, E.Y. (2015). Indigenous bacteria from the gut microbiota regulate host serotonin biosynthesis. In: «Cell», vol. CLXI, n. 2, pp. 264-276.
YOO, B.B., MAZMANIAN, S.K. (2017). The enteric network: Interactions between the immune and nervous systems of the gut. In: «Immunity», vol. XLVI, n. 6, pp. 910-926.
ZHAO, L., XIONG, Q., STARY, C.M., MAHGOUB, O.K., YE, Y., GU, L., XIONG, X., ZHU, S. (2018). Bidirectional gut-brain-microbiota axis as a potential link between inflammatory bowel disease and ischemic stroke. In: «Journal of Neuroinflammation», vol. XV, n. 1, Art. Nr. 339 – doi: 10.1186/s12974-018-1382-3.
DOI: https://doi.org/10.4453/rifp.2021.0024
Copyright (c) 2021 Federico Boem
URLdella licenza: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/
Rivista internazionale di Filosofia e Psicologia - ISSN: 2039-4667 (print) - E-ISSN: 2239-2629 (online)
Registrazione al Tribunale di Milano n. 634 del 26-11-2010 - Direttore Responsabile: Aurelia Delfino
Web provider Aruba spa - Loc. Palazzetto, 4 - 52011 Bibbiena (AR) - P.IVA 01573850516 - C.F. e R.I./AR 04552920482
Dove non diversamente specificato, i contenuti di Rivista Internazionale di Filosofia e Psicologia sono distribuiti con Licenza Creative Commons Attribuzione 4.0 Internazionale.